• Identify referred pain regions associated with kidney stones and recognize common symptoms and diagnostic findings.
• Explain the chemical processes underlying calcium oxalate stone formation and identify dietary and metabolic sources of calcium and oxalate that contribute to stone development.
• Describe physiological mechanisms that regulate blood calcium levels.
• Trace the formation and movement of kidney stones from their origin to potential exit from the body.
• Explain how stones become lodged in the ureter, including associated symptoms and complications.
• Compare key medical treatments and lifestyle strategies used to manage and prevent kidney stone formation.

Kidney; kidney stones; kidney stone disease; KSD; urinary system; calcium oxalate; Ca²⁺; renal tubules; ureter; Neeri;